Eggplant Domestication History and Genealogy

Eggplant (Solanum melongena), also known as aubergine or brinjal, is a cultivated crop with a mysterious but well-documented past. Eggplant is a member of the Solanaceae family, which includes its American cousins potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers). But unlike the American Solanaceae domesticates, eggplant is believed to have been domesticated in the Old World, likely India, China, Thailand, Burma or someplace else in southeast Asia. Today there are approximately 15-20 different varieties of eggplant, grown primarily in China. Using Eggplants The first use of eggplant was probably medicinal rather than culinary: its flesh still has a bitter after-taste if it is not treated properly, despite centuries of domestication experimentation. Some of the earliest written evidence for the use of eggplant is from the Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, Ayurvedic texts written about 100 BC that describe the health benefits of eggplant. The domestication process increased the fruit size and weight of eggplants  and altered the prickliness, flavor, and flesh and peel color, a centuries-long process which is carefully documented in ancient Chinese literature. The earliest domestic relatives of eggplant described in Chinese documents had small, round, green fruits, while todays cultivars feature an incredible range of colors. The prickliness of the wild eggplant is an adaptation to protect itself from herbivores; the domesticated versions have few or no prickles, a trait selected by humans so that we omnivores can pluck them safely. Eggplants Possible Parents The progenitor plant for S. melongena is still under debate. Some scholars pinpoint S. incarnum, a native of North Africa and the Middle East, that developed first as a garden weed and then was selectively grown and developed in southeast Asia. However, DNA sequencing has provided evidence that S. melongena is likely descended from another African plant S. linnaeanum, and that that plant was dispersed throughout the Middle East and into Asia before becoming domesticated. S. linnaeanum produces small, round green-striped fruit. Other scholars suggest that the true progenitor plant has not been identified yet, but was probably located in the savannas of southeast Asia. The real problem in trying to resolve the domestication history of eggplant is that archaeological evidence supporting any eggplant domestication process is lacking--evidence for eggplant simply hasnt been found in archaeological contexts, and so researchers must rely on a set of data that includes genetics but also a wealth of historical information. Ancient History of the Eggplant Literary references to eggplant occur in Sanskrit literature, with the oldest direct mention dated from the third century AD; a possible reference may date as early as 300 BC. Multiple references have also been found in the vast Chinese literature, the earliest of which is in the document known as the Tong Yue, written by Wang Bao in 59 BC. Wang writes that the one should separate and transplant eggplant seedlings at the time of the Spring equinox. The Rhapsody on Metropolitan of Shu, 1st century BC-1st century AD, also mentions eggplants. Later Chinese documentation records the specific changes that were deliberately wrought by Chinese agronomists in domesticated eggplants: from round and small green fruit to large and long-necked fruit with a purple peel. Illustrations in Chinese botanical references dated between the 7-19th centuries AD document the alterations in eggplants shape and size; interestingly, the search for a better flavor is also documented in Chinese records, as the Chinese botanists endeavored to remove the bitter flavor in the fruits. Eggplant is believed to have been brought to the attention of the Middle East, Africa and the West by Arabic traders along the Silk Road, beginning around the 6th century AD. However, earlier carvings of eggplants have been found in two regions of the Mediterranean: Iassos (within a garland on a Roman sarcophagus, ​the first half of the 2nd century AD) and Phrygia (a fruit carved on a grave stele, 2nd century AD). Yilmaz and colleagues suggest a few samples may have been brought back from Alexander the Greats expedition to India. Sources DoÄŸanlar, Sami. High resolution map of eggplant (Solanum melongena) reveals extensive chromosome rearrangement in domesticated members of the Solanaceae. Amy FraryMarie-Christine Daunay, Volume 198, Issue 2, SpringerLink, July 2014. Isshiki S, Iwata N, and Khan MMR. 2008. ISSR variations in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and related Solanum species. Scientia Horticulturae 117(3):186-190. Li H, Chen H, Zhuang T, and Chen J. 2010. Analysis of genetic variation in eggplant and related Solanum species using sequence-related amplified polymorphism markers. Scientia Horticulturae 125(1):19-24. Liao Y, Sun B-j, Sun G-w, Liu H-c, Li Z-l, Li Z-x, Wang G-p, and Chen R-y. 2009. AFLP and SCAR Markers Associated with Peel Color in Eggplant (Solanum melongena). Agricultural Sciences in China 8(12):1466-1474. Meyer RS, Whitaker BD, Little DP, Wu S-B, Kennelly EJ, Long C-L, and Litt A. 2015. Parallel reductions in phenolic constituents resulting from the domestication of eggplant. Phytochemistry 115:194-206. Portis E, Barchi L, Toppino L, Lanteri S, Acciarri N, Felicioni N, Fusari F, Barbierato V, Cericola F, Valà ¨ G et al. 2014. QTL Mapping in Eggplant Reveals Clusters of Yield-Related Loci and Orthology with the Tomato Genome. PLoS ONE 9(2):e89499. Wang J-X, Gao T-G, and Knapp S. 2008. Ancient Chinese Literature Reveals Pathways of Eggplant Domestication. Annals of Botany 102(6):891-897. Free download Weese TL, and Bohs L. 2010. Eggplant origins: Out of Africa, into the Orient. Taxon 59:49-56. Yilmaz H, Akkemik U, and Karagoz S. 2013. Identification of plant figures on stone statues and sarcophaguses and their symbols: the Hellenistic and Roman periods of the eastern Mediterranean basin in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 13(2):135-145.

Character Development In Ralph Ellisons The Invisible Man

Character development within novels with complex plot structures proves to be a difficult task necessitating the author to add their own inner thoughts and experiences to weave a more realistic story. The historical background of a writer helps glean on information about that person’s unconscious and subconscious processes that become apparent within an author’s literature. As the author develops their thoughts throughout a novel attempting to paint a clearer picture of their purpose, their own persona becomes a part of the literature. Psychoanalytic theory attempts to further this claim by taking information from one’s childhood, inner taboo thoughts and hidden motivations, and synthesizing them for a better picture of the author’s†¦show more content†¦Ellison relays this when his narrator is â€Å"under the spell of the reefer,† and discovers â€Å"a new analytical way of listening to music† (Ellison 8). Although the man despises t he feeling of altered time that reefer is associated with, he can appreciate the sensitivities of music within the manipulated psychological state of mind. Without Ellison’s own experiences with music and the feelings of euphoria it brought upon him, it would be nearly impossible to relay such clear messages of passion within the novel. This character in the very beginning of the novel was one that had been satisfied with his life and decided to remain actively dormant to the outside world, but as Ellison tells his story, music is mentioned in multiple instances. As he attempts to find a job, Mr. Emerson’s son tells him that â€Å"a number of my friends are jazz musicians...I know the conditions under which you live - Why go back?† (Ellison 188) Ralph Ellison understands the struggle that musicians go through to make a living, especially in places where opportunities are extremely few. Anywhere other than Harlem, the narrator would be unable to find anything to do with his talents. This may be a feeling the younger Ellison himself also felt, the competitiveness and the limited scope of opportunities that musicians had may have forced him to move into the North and even take his talents into the area of writing. Ellison’s childhood experiences with music inspire him to writeShow MoreRelatedMetaphors In Ralph Ellisons Invisible Man1235 Words   |  5 PagesMetaphors in Invisible Man Ellison uses many examples of metaphors in his novel to convey invisibility, especially with references to music, imagery, and the use of a nameless character. With literature that challenged the accepted ideals surrounding that time period, Ellison expresses his thoughts by comparing an invisible man to various relatable subjects in life. When the narrator firsts starts on his journey and gets constantly bumped, he states that â€Å"You constantly wonder whether you aren’tRead MoreBattle Royal - Ralph Ellison Research Paper1209 Words   |  5 PagesBattle of a Black Man Ralph Ellison made it clear that Invisible Man was not based on his own experiences. In an interview, he stated, â€Å"Let me say right now that my book is not an autobiographical work.† However, it is clear that his culture and the time period of his upbringing affected his writing. This is particularly seen in his descriptions of the treatment of blacks, the African American society, and the revelation of the narrator. Like the characters in â€Å"Battle Royal†, African AmericansRead MoreCritical Analysis: Ralph Ellisons Invisible Man Essay1651 Words   |  7 PagesIn Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man, we are presented with an unnamed narrator whose values and potentials are invisible to the world around him. 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Academic Essential Writing Curbing Corruption

Question: Discuss about the Academic Essential Writing for Curbing Corruption. Answer: Introduction In the public and virtual spheres, the online betting is a mooted issue. The Singapore parliament and public sphere debate the particular issue. In the assignment, I aim to reflect on a specific debate related to the topic of online betting. With a persuasive flair, I intend to defend my position, while arguing for a particular stance on this issue. I will start the assignment with the definition of online betting. The veritable question is what do we mean by online betting? To start with, online betting is synonymous to online gambling. It is a general term for gambling using the internet. In the recent time, gambling assumes a new connotation (Winslow et al., 2015). The virtual gambling gains a wider currency among the young and middle-aged population in the Asiatic countries. With the advent of the internet, the betting strategies become variegated. The betting habits encompass video lottery terminals, keno and scratchcards (Cheong, 2017). With the introduction of these gambling techniques, the gambling industry attains a new dimension. These new strategies permeate the global landscape. Factors of online betting In the assignment, I will explore certain issues like moral, economic, ethical and social issues. Because of these varied issues, the government allows two lottery operators to provide online betting. As far as the moral issue is concerned, online gambling is not a safe thing.The present technology is not adequate to preclude the minor candidates from gambling on the virtual domain. It is believed that the internet gambling is detrimental to the society and culture. The online gambling augments tension and spawns serious problems (teenage crime, suicide episodes, and fraudulent practices). At the same time, the virtual gamblers practice chicanery and unethical drilling to garner lump sum money. The virtual pokers and jesters are targeted by the federal government (Markham Young, 2015). These categories of people engage in laundering money and committing bank fraud. Therefore, online betting or internet gambling should be restricted by the government. Online betting has an ethical pr emise that needs to be discussed in the segment. It is significant to comprehend the legal and ethical covenants of the gaming industry. Online betting or internet gambling falls under the gaming industry (Markham Young, 2015). With the advancement of technology, gambling assumes a new space. The internet gambling or online betting occupies a realistic ground. The new technology bolsters the ethical obligation of the online betting or internet gambling. As far as the social factor is concerned, online betting or internet gambling takes an interesting stance. The medium of gambling is new and there are less or negligible studies done on the particular domain (Larmour, 2014). It is difficult to assess the social impact of online betting in the recent time. The opponents of online gambling claim that high addiction is a growing social concern among the young population. In addition, cyber hacking and money laundering are all-pervasive in Singapore. These are some of the issues that ar e significant in the segment. Due to these factors, the government allows two lottery operators to offer online betting. An eminent politician of Singapore, Tan Chuan Jin supports the decision of government regarding the provision of two lottery operators. To his belief, it is important to incorporate two lottery operators, which provide a coordinated and safe forum for gamblers. The politician focuses on an important fact in his interview. He underscores that the government shows its reluctance against online betting, which is accelerating at a rapid pace. The politician claims that the practice of gambling will increase incessantly. Therefore, it is indispensable to bring the activity within a strict fold (Gainsbury et al., 2016). It is decided to incorporate a regulated vent through which the government can resolve any problem. At the same time, the government adds another restriction. In order to use the legal gambling platforms, the age should be at least 21 years or above. It is essential for the gamblers to operate within an exclusive zone (Cheong, 2017). Going with the motion In this segment, I think that the government of Singapore has made a right decision related to online betting. The government decides to allow two lottery operators that restrict the medium of online betting. The government comprehends the graveness of the situation. It is difficult to cease the operation of online gambling. Therefore, it is advisable to bring online betting or internet gambling within a strict fold. At another spectrum, the social workers and the consumers feel that online betting would increase the rate of addiction. Mr. Alan Lee, a photographer, explains the problem of gambling in his interview. He believes that online betting services would increase addiction among the young population of Singapore. The young people should concentrate on their academics. At the same time, the schools and colleges should educate the students about the disadvantages of online betting (Ma et al., 2014). Many people regard the move of the government a bad idea (Ma et al., 2014). Online betting would hamper the growth and development of young people of Singapore. Therefore, many people did not subscribe to the idea of online betting services in Singapore. At the same time, online betting would welcome many fake gambling websites that engage in money laundering. In the past few years, the process of online gambling minimized the law and other regulations in Singapore. In addition, the lottery opera tors like Singapore pools and Singapore Turf club engage in online betting services (Rhode Strumpf, 2013). These lottery operators entail a rigid policy that is a growing concern among the individuals of Singapore. Going against the motion I think that the online betting is detrimental to the society and culture. It is an alarming concern among the young population of Singapore. However, it is difficult for the government to restrict the spread of online betting services in Singapore. In an advanced era, online betting gains a wider currency (Chow, 2017). To my belief, online betting or internet gambling eats into the vitality of the young society. The young generation derives fun and excitement from online gambling sites. Therefore, the government has made the right decision related to online betting. It is significant to bring the online betting service within a regulated circuit. In the section, I subscribe to the view of the government related to online betting. References Cheong, D. "Online Betting To Be Allowed In Next Two Months Via Singapore Pools, Singapore Turf Club". The Straits Times. N.p., 2017. Web. 25 Mar. 2017. Chow, J. "Legal Online Betting May Be Available Soon". The Straits Times. N.p., 2017. Web. 25 Mar. 2017. Gainsbury, S. M., Delfabbro, P., King, D. L., Hing, N. (2016). An exploratory study of gambling operators use of social media and the latent messages conveyed. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32(1), 125-141. Larmour, P. (2014). Different Paths to Curbing Corruption: Lessons from Denmark, Finland, Hong Kong, New Zealand, and Singapore edited by Jon ST Quah, ed. Research in Public Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 23. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2013. 255 pp. $114.95 (cloth). Ma, X., Kim, S. H., Kim, S. S. (2014). Online gambling behavior: The impacts of cumulative outcomes, recent outcomes, and prior use. Information Systems Research, 25(3), 511-527. Markham, F., Young, M. (2015). Big Gambling: The rise of the global industry-state gambling complex. Rhode, P. W., Strumpf, K. (2013). The long history of political betting markets: an international perspective. Winslow, M., Cheok, C., Subramaniam, M. (2015). Gambling in Singapore: An overview of history, research, treatment and policy. Addiction, 110(9), 1383-1387.